The northern kingdom of Israel had known over 60 years of wicked rulers, marked by assassinations, mass murders, idolatry and suicide. Now during the reign of the most wicked king yet, with an even more wicked queen the de facto ruler of the land and the crown patroness of Baalism, Israel was covered by a thick mantle of idolatry and spiritual darkness. Every point of light had been seemingly extinguished, with every voice proclaiming the teachings of Yahweh, the God of Israel, silenced. Israel was a land under occupation – under the rule of the most hideous and depraved form of idolatry the world had ever seen. With Jezebel as the queen and Ahab her puppet king, Baal was the god of the land and Satan appeared to have effectively eradicated all signs of righteousness. Onto the stage of this abject spiritual and moral decay, perhaps the darkest hour in Israel’s history, burst a thunderbolt from the hand of Yahweh, a solitary but striking witness to and for the living God.
1 Kings 17:1 “Now Elijah the Tishbite, who was of the settlers of Gilead, said to Ahab, ‘As the LORD, the God of Israel lives, before whom I stand, surely there shall be neither dew nor rain these years, except by my word’.” (NASB)
The prophet bursts onto the scene unannounced and without the formulaic “The word of the Lord came to…” Without any introductions and no mention of his family, tribe or occupation, the only identifying characteristic given is that he’s from a district mentioned just once in known literature, a district scholars cannot locate with any certainty. An unknown quantity from an uncertain locality, Elijah is, without question, one of the most distinctive and infamous individuals in biblical history, though scant little is known of him at this stage.
His entrance onto the OT stage is abrupt, bold and dramatic, completely lacking in any form of salutation, greeting and introduction. His blunt and terse style utterly lacks any fear or reverence for an autocratic king and his instigative queen, who has clearly evidenced no qualms for killing to meet her ends. His departure is likewise abrupt and without any explanations or any indication of when he could be expected again. In short, his sudden burst upon the stage and equally abrupt disappearance likely left everyone stunned and wondering, “Who was that masked man?” “Like a meteor, he flashed across the inky blackness of Israel’s spiritual night.” J. Oswald Sanders.
Unlike Moses, whose heritage is given in great details, this is all we are given regarding Elijah, who except for Moses, more is written of him in the New Testament than any other prophet. Yet only six chapters in the Old Testament record Elijah’s life and ministry. More than just another prophet, he is considered to be the greatest prophet, the one who stands as the pattern for all other prophets:
“Behold, I will send you Elijah the prophet before the great and awesome day of the Lord comes. And he will turn the hearts of fathers to their children and the hearts of children to their fathers, lest I come and strike the land with a decree of utter destruction.” (Mal 4:5-6)
Considered the “forerunner of the Messiah,” references to him in Jewish and rabbinic literature abound; and by his Greek name “Elias,” he is mentioned 28 times in the Gospels, once by Paul (Rom 11:2), and once by James (Jam 5:17). Jewish tradition exalts Elijah to levels bordering on blasphemy, just short of the degree of elevation of Mary in Catholicism. Rabbinic teachings express the belief God had delegated to Elijah His omnipotent powers, particularly two of the three keys: those of rain, of children, and of raising to life. The extreme reverence for Moses and Elijah is amplified in the belief these are the two prophets mentioned by Hosea:
“By a prophet the Lord brought Israel up from Egypt, and by a prophet he was guarded.” (Hos 12:13)
So deep was the impression of Elijah made on the mind and culture of the Jews, that he became the comparison for future prophets – even in the New Testament. John the Baptist was spoken of as the one who would go before the Messiah “in the spirit and power” of Elijah (Luke 1:17), and John was asked if he was the reincarnated Elijah (John 1:21,25); while others considered Jesus to be the return of Elijah (Matt 16:14; Mark 6:15).
Elijah appeared along with Moses on the Mount of Transfiguration with Jesus, where Peter suggested that three tabernacles be built, one each for Jesus, Moses, and Elijah (Matt. 17:4; Mark 9:5; Luke 9:33).
The two witnesses referred to in Revelation 11:3-12 are not identified by name, but because the judgments inflicted by Moses and Elijah in the Old Testament are similar to those of these two witnesses, many conclude they are Moses and Elijah. Along similar lines, others believe these are Enoch and Elijah, as they are the only two humans to never die.
Called by some as the grandest and the most romantic character that Israel ever produced, Elijah is further revered in history and religion:
At the observance of the Passover, orthodox Jews leave the door open so that Elijah may enter if he should suddenly come. Also orthodox Jews reserve a vacant chair for Elijah at the circumcision of a child. And some Jews honor Elijah in that when lost goods are discovered and the owner cannot be found, they are set aide until Elijah comes to identify the owner.
Muslims likewise hold great regard for the prophet Elijah in their teachings, as well as the Baha’i faith.
Some in the Roman Catholic Church claim Elijah was the actual founder of the barefoot Carmelite order of monks, while most view him as the individual in whose honor the order was established.
A mountain in Greece is named after him, and one of Felix Mendelssohn’s greatest oratorios is entitled “Elijah.”
Despite his often superhuman abilities and character, however, Elijah is clearly a very human figure. We’ll see he can be afraid, running for his life, and he can become extremely discouraged, wanting even to die. Elijah is clearly no superman. He is, however, a shining example for all of us of how mightily God can work in and through an individual who is so completely and thoroughly devoted to the Lord – exhibiting a life of efficacious faith and prayer.
“Now Elijah the Tishbite, from Tishbe in Gilead…” (NIV)
“And Elijah the Tishbite, of the inhabitants of Gilead…” (NKJV)
“And Elijah the Tishbite, who was of the sojourners of Gilead…” (ASV)
His first appearance: abrupt, blunt and dramatic, is very emblematic of typical encounters with Elijah, and also in keeping with his environment. No mention of his birth and prior history is found in any extant writings. Josephus generally indicates that the Tishbah which gave him his name lays on the eastern side of Jordan, in the land of Gilead (Ant. 8. 13, 2); and the only other clue to his background, more precise in description, comes from the apocryphal story of Tobit:
“In the days of Shalmaneser king of Assyria, he was exiled from Thisbe, which is south of Kedesh-Naphtali in Upper Galilee, above Hazor, some distance to the west, north of Shephat.” (Tobit 1:2)
This clue would indicate Tobias the elder was taken captive from the very same town Elijah was from: the city of Thisbe (a.k.a. Tishbi, Tishbeth and Tisbeh), in Upper Galilee, within the territory ascribed to the tribe of Naphtali. Based upon the literally rendering that Elijah was merely one of the “sojourners” of Gilead, it appears Elijah had probably come from Tishbi in Naphtali and had taken up residence among the settlers in Gilead. If such is the case, this would be the inverse, though not contradicted by, Jesus being referred to as a “Nazarene,” though He was born in Bethlehem. While Jesus was born in Bethlehem, He spent little time there and spent most of his life growing up in Nazareth. Such nomenclature would suggest Elijah was originally from and grew up in Tishbi, later moving to the Gilead region. Some have suggested that Elijah's family may have been displaced to Gilead during the Aramean (Syrian) Wars during Baasha's reign.
Some have interpreted “sojourners” or “Tishbe” to mean “stranger,” and read the verse, “Elijah the stranger from among the strangers in Gilead.” This designation likely is influenced by the LXX rendering, “Elijah the Tishbite of Tishbi in Gilead” – which itself is likely influenced by the general location given by Josephus. While the reading of “stranger” is a bit of stretch, such an interpretation is used to validate claims of Elijah being a non-Israelite, likely an Ishmaelite, or Arab. Such a theory might help to explain the lack of family lineage or background for Elijah, unusual in Hebrew culture, as well as elucidate as to the Muslim and Baha’i reverence for Elijah.
A Gentile prophet to rebuke the nation of Israel would indeed have been an extraordinary manner for Yahweh to rebuke His wayward people. However, this view garners little support among scholars, and his being a Gentile would have certainly been made more known, if that were indeed the case. Orthodox Jews likely would have tripped over themselves to explain their nigh blasphemous reverence for a Gentile, or at the very least provide some compelling evidence to show how he had converted to Judaism or was otherwise made acceptable. Muslims likewise would have loudly proclaimed him all the more if he truly had been an Ishmaelite.
Regardless, attempts to pinpoint the location of Tishbi have thus far been in vain. A scholar as respected as the late Merrill F. Unger (Unger’s Bible Dictionary) doesn’t hesitate to emphasize the obscurity of the man’s roots: “The term Tishbite refers to a native of a certain town by the name of Tishbeth, or something similar…a site of this name is unknown.” Talk about stepping out of nowhere to become the Lord’s mightiest prophet!
Elijah wasn't a polished preacher like Isaiah and Jeremiah, but was more of a rough-hewn reformer who confronted and rebuked Ahab, challenged and killed the prophets of Baal (who were fed at Jezebel’s table) and confronted and rebuked the people to acknowledge the real God of Israel. Given the extremely pagan and anti-Yahweh culture under the rule of Jezebel, Elijah was undoubtedly courageous and bold, a man of stern character and determined in his zeal for the Lord, and honed and toughened by the rough and harsh environment he called home.
Gilead, in the northern Transjordan area, east of the Jordan River, was a place of solitude and ruggedness. It was never a place of polish, sophistication and diplomacy, an austere land whose people were coarse, crude and harsh. “Gilead… was wild and rugged; its hills were covered with shaggy forests; its awful solitude was only broken by the dash of mountain streams; its valleys were the haunt of fierce wild beasts.” (Meyers)
While the hills of Gilead were sufficiently fertile so that crops and livestock could thrive in the area, it took much hard labor to make the land produce well because of the ruggedness of the land. It was hardly an area for a soft and spoiled person. Rather, it was a place that produced rough and rugged outdoorsmen, accustomed to living in the open and long periods of solitude. Elijah was not raised in softness and ease. He was clearly no wimp. Push-overs do not make good prophets, particularly in the lion’s den of Ahab and Jezebel’s Israel.
The presence of a stern, black camel hair-clad Elijah (2 Kgs 1:8) would have made for a distinctive appearance, to say the very least. As he made purposeful strides up through the terraced streets of prosperous and decadent Samaria, into the presence of the idolatrous Ahab and his richly-garbed and pampered company of courtiers and the vile priests of Baal, in their gaudy uniforms of white linen garments and high-pointed bonnets (2 Kgs 10:22), this rugged mountain man clearly would have been an imposing figure – even before he spoke.
The abrupt, bold, and dramatic appearance of Elijah in verse 1 is much in keeping with the nature and character of Elijah, as evidenced from subsequent appearances. He was not a passive, timid, mild-mannered individual; he was a shock treatment. It was his very nature to bypass the perfunctory pleasantries and get straight to the point, irrespective of the audience and without regard for any danger he might encounter. He was sent by Yahweh – who could trump that? Elijah’s nature fit his calling.
One significant element we do know about Elijah is the meaning of his name;
אֵלִיָּה ’ēliyyâ
If we break his name down, the Hebrew term for “God” in the Old Testament is Elohim, which is often abbreviated, El. The word yah is the short for “Yahweh.” Between them is the small letter i, which in Hebrew has reference to the personal pronoun “my” or “mine.” Putting the three together, we find that “Elijah” means, “Yahweh [is] my God,” read right-to-left in the Hebrew. In the New Testament, his Greek form is “Elias.”
With his name depicting the motto of his life, and his nature befitting the environment in which he lived, such is the prophet who during Israel’s darkest hour, stood in the gap.
“I searched for a man among them who would build up the wall and stand in the gap before Me for the land, so that I would not destroy it; but I found no one.” (Eze 22:30)
Now that we have spent so much time on just the first half of the first sentence in verse 1, let’s take a look at what he said:
“As the LORD, the God of Israel lives, before whom I stand, surely there shall be neither dew nor rain these years, except by my word.”
What are the five key shots across Ahab’s bow within this sentence?
1) Yahweh, not Baal, is the Elohim of Israel.
2) Yahweh lives.
3) Elijah was Yahweh’s servant.
4) There would be neither dew nor rain – for years.
5) The utter lack of moisture would continue until Elijah said so.
How long had it been since the last time the expression, “Yahweh, the elōhîm of Israel” had been spoken in Israel, let alone in the throne room? Elijah takes wicked Ahab and his idolatrous court back to the call of Moses, and bluntly points out to them their gross departure from where Israel had been called and commanded before:
Ex 3:14-15 “God said to Moses, ‘I AM WHO I AM.’ And He said, ‘Say this to the people of Israel,’ ‘I AM has sent me to you.’ God also said to Moses, ‘Say this to the people of Israel, ‘The Lord, the God of your fathers, the God of Abraham, the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob, has sent me to you.’ This is My name forever, and thus I am to be remembered throughout all generations.”
Ex 20:1-5 “And elōhîm spoke all these words, saying, ‘I am Yahweh your elōhîm, who brought you out of the land of Egypt, out of the house of slavery. You shall not have other elōhîm besides Me. You shall not carve idols for yourselves in the shape of anything in the sky above or on the earth below or in the waters beneath the earth; you shall not bow down before them or worship them …’” (NAB)
Elijah continues his staccato-fire of cannon shots by publicly and boldly declaring himself to be a servant of Yahweh: “before whom I stand.” Considering Jezebel and her minions were hunting down and killing anyone who made such a stand: “when Jezebel was butchering the prophets of Yahweh” (1 Kgs 18:4, NJB), Elijah was throwing his gauntlet right into the teeth of the royal court. Furthermore, based upon his self-proclaimed office as messenger of Yahweh, until Elijah said otherwise (being understood a messenger would only speak when given the words by his master), his prophecy would hold. In other words, nothing that Ahab, Jezebel, Baal, or Baal’s prophets could say or do would have any power against Elijah’s judgment of what was to come.
What is the evidence or support for Elijah’s audacious claims? Yahweh lives and would validate His messenger by withholding dew and rain – not just for a short period, but for years. This would be no natural cessation of moisture that could somehow be explained as a normal or even unusual weather fluctuation, but an utter lack of even a drop for such an extended period of time, that all would have full-knowledge of the chastisement that was upon them.
What was the significance of declaring Yahweh lives, and why choose a drought? Wasn’t there a more dramatic, more dazzling proof this Yahweh still existed and still wielded power? After all, once Elijah left, it’s not like Ahab or his court saw or felt anything different, right? Wouldn’t it have been better to do something that would have awestruck everyone right away? Instead, Ahab and his court could just mock and laugh at the crazy and wild-speaking old coot from the hills.
This wild statement from some camel hair appareled mountain man couldn’t have been made in a more surreal setting. A defiant declaration in the luxury of Ahab’s court, in the decadence and splendor of the capital city, Samaria, with every visible sign of peace and prosperity on all sides. Did Ahab and his court just laugh? What impression did they have of this Elijah? Were they just so shell-shocked by his appearance and crazy talk that he walked away before they recovered, or did they so pity this clearly misguided hayseed from the hills that they let him leave to continue in the ignorance of his ways?
By proclaiming Yahweh lives and choosing a drought as the combined proof and punishment, Elijah was striking at the very heart of Baalism – in the epicenter of Baal worship. His declaration was to emphasize the impotence of Baal and the false prophets and priests – and even Ahab and his evil helpmeet, Jezebel – by meeting them on their ground, at their point of strength. It was a bold challenge, on their terms, their weapons, their location, their timing – if ever a deck was stacked in someone’s favor, this was it. Elijah declares he and his Yahweh is willing to meet with everything stacked in Baal’s favor, everything on his terms and conditions. How is this the case?
Baalism existed as a religion for several centuries in various ancient Near Eastern countries. Its prominence in Canaan and Phoenicia is especially important for understanding most of the Old Testament, since it is from those cultures that the major influence on Israel and Judah came.
The term Ba’al can refer to any god and even to human officials, as it initially meant “lord” or “owner” or even “husband.” In some texts Baal is the term used as a substitute for Hadad, the god of the rain, thunder, fertility and agriculture, the high lord of heaven. As only his priests were allowed to utter his divine name, Baal was used instead of his proper name. The term Baal was also used to refer to any number of local deities worshipped by villagers, so there is seen a proliferation of Baal – X with the x equating to a specific location. This would indicate a local deity, while “the Baal” (with the article) typically would indicate Hadad or his respective name in other cultures, such as Melqart, his Tyrian (Phoenician) name.
In the ancient world, El was the greatest of the gods, also identified with Marduk, the sun god and the high god of the Babylonian pantheon, as well as Dagon. The Hebrews referred to him as Merodach. He was believed to be the Lord of the World and the King of the Land. He was saluted as “the Great Lord, the command of whose mouth cannot be altered and whose grace is steadfast.” His role as chief deity was later supplanted by his particularly heroic son, Baal (Hadad), one of seventy offspring of El and Asherah.
Baal was the grand god of the storms and fertility, controlling the weather and fire. His consort was his sister-wife, Anath (Anat), the erotic goddess of love and war, referred to as “virgin” (how ironic for a sex goddess) and “holy.” She is also known by her Greek name Astarte (identified with Aphrodite and Venus) and her Babylonian identity is Ishtar. She is generally referred to in the Old Testament as Ashtaroth or Ashtoreth. Her Roman form was Easter, whose fertility signs, interestingly, were a rabbit and an egg.
From this unholy union arose the most debauched, degrading and vile fertility religion the world has ever seen, carried out on “every high hill and under every green tree” (2 Kgs 17:10,11). Their images typically had grossly exaggerated sexual features, with Anat a multi-breasted female fertility deity, whose worship often included bizarre sexual practices. Their rites included frenzied dances, ritual mutilations, male and female prostitution (heterosexual, homosexual and wild orgies), and human sacrifices (usually the live first-born child of the sacrificer).
Referred to as “the prince lord of the earth,” Zaphon was Baal’s mythical mountain home, the counterpart to the Greek Olympus. From there he was thought to bring productivity to crops, animals and humans. His voice was believed to be the thunder heard in storms, with lightening the bolts thrown from his hands. Images of Baal holding such bolts led to his being referred to as the “god of fire.” Thus he was believed to control the very forces of nature – supreme over agriculture and all forms of fertility.
Dry years or years of drought and famine were attributed to his temporary captivity and even death at the hands of Mot, Baal’s chief rival and sibling offspring of El. Sacrifices to Anat would arouse her to do battle with Mot, and as the goddess of war, she would eventually defeat Mot, resulting in her reunion with the revived Baal. Their joyous coming together resulted in the rains, crops and offspring for both animals and humans. Thus the equating of fertility with the presence of a live and vibrant Baal, who as the storm god sent the life-preserving rains onto the land, and the equating of drought and famine with his periodic death.
Additionally, as the god who wielded the lightening bolts, he was both beneficent and destructive. While he could provide light and warmth to his worshippers, he could also bring the fierce heat of summer that brought about the destruction of the vegetation that he himself had brought into being. Accordingly, human sacrifices were made to appease his anger in times of plague or other troubles (Jer 19:5). The Old Testament often refers to such sacrifices as the victim being “passed through the fire.” (2 Kgs 16:3; 21:6).
Reflecting back to our text, it has been written, “The land was ruled by Ahab; Ahab was ruled by Jezebel; Jezebel was under the control of idolatry to Baal and Ashtoreth; and Baal and Ashtoreth were gods of cruelty and uncleanness.” (Scroggie)
Why Yahweh lives and a drought? Unlike Baal, no power can overcome Yahweh, so there is never a time when He is captive or dead. As He is alone is supreme, and Baal is a false god, even in “Baal’s land” and completely on which should have been Baal’s terms, conditions and strengths, Yahweh is able to withhold the dew and the rain, the very blessings supposedly held by Baal.
In an agricultural land completely dependent upon the seasonal early rains of October and November, and the latter rains of March and April, the utter lack of rain and dew spelled doom. Why drought? Because the Lord had warned the Israelites repeated that if they departed from Him to idolatry, He would withhold His blessings of rain and dew from them:
“I will break down your stubborn pride and make the sky above you like iron and the ground beneath you like bronze. Your strength will be spent in vain, because your soil will not yield its crops, nor will the trees of the land yield their fruit.” (Lev 26:19-20)
“Be careful, or you will be enticed to turn away and worship other gods and bow down to them. Then the LORD's anger will burn against you, and He will shut the heavens so that it will not rain and the ground will yield no produce, and you will soon perish from the good land the LORD is giving you.” (Deut 11:16-17)
“The sky over your head will be bronze, the ground beneath you iron. The LORD will turn the rain of your country into dust and powder; it will come down from the skies until you are destroyed.” (Deut 28:23-24)
“Therefore, because of you the heavens have withheld their dew and the earth its crops. I called for a drought on the fields and the mountains…” (Hag 1:10-11)
In Palestine the dew can often fall as heavily as drizzle, and it was viewed as a sign of blessing:
“So Israel will live in safety alone; Jacob’s spring is secure in a land of grain and new wine, where the heavens drop dew.” (Deut 33:28)
“Your troops will be willing on your day of battle. Arrayed in holy majesty, from the womb of the dawn you will receive the dew of your youth.” (Psa 110:3)
“It is as if the dew of Hermon were falling on Mount Zion.” (Psa 133:3)
“A king’s rage is like the roar of a lion, but his favor is like dew on the grass.” (Pro 19:12)
“I will be like the dew to Israel; he will blossom like a lily…” (Hos 14:5)
Conversely, “neither dew nor rain” was the absolute worst expression of tragedy and curse. Consider David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan’s death:
“O mountains of Gilboa, may you have neither dew nor rain, nor fields that yield offerings of grain.” (2 Sam 1:21)
While Ahab, Jezebel and their Baal prophets proclaimed the glories of Baal and promoted his vile religion, Elijah boldly declared the Yahweh is truly God and as proof would make nothing of Baal’s supposed strengths and powers. Not only would Yahweh prove it just once, He would prove it for a long-enough period of time that there could be no other explanation and no doubt as to who is truly Lord.
With his blunt, shocking message tersely delivered, Elijah walked out, just as abruptly as he appeared.
Sunday, December 14, 2008
Saturday, December 6, 2008
For Such a Time as This (1 Kgs 16:29-34)
In Part 2 of the Introduction we followed the sad tale of Solomon and the eventual splintering of the Israelite Empire that his father David had once ruled. Because Solomon had allowed his heart to be led astray from the Lord by his innumerable foreign wives to following idols, his kingdom was to be carved up, and his son would rule over just two of the tribes of Israel (1 Kings 11).
Yet it should be noted that while Solomon was still alive, the Lord raised up two adversaries, Hadad the Edomite (who had fled to Egypt and was protected by Pharaoh) and Rezon, who between them sliced away the northern and southern extremities of the Israelite kingdom (11:14-25).
When Solomon’s son, Rehoboam, gained the throne, he foolishly ignored the advice of his counselors and followed instead the machismo advice of his young friends, resulting in his losing the entire northern 10 tribes of Israel. This left him with just the tribes of Benjamin and Judah to rule, known as the Kingdom of Judah (12:1-24).
Incidentally, a review of the maps of Israel that show the tribes and their holdings ostensibly has the tribe of Simeon also within the Kingdom of Judah. However, the territory of the Simeonites was essentially absorbed by Judah, with little reference regarding the territory of Simeon from the book of Judges through the end of the Old Testament.
“The inheritance of the people of Simeon formed part of the territory of the people of Judah. Because the portion of the people of Judah was too large for them, the people of Simeon obtained an inheritance in the midst of their inheritance.” (Josh 19:9)
Furthermore, while the tribe of Dan initially had been given the territory due west of Benjamin, which would also place this tribe in the southern kingdom, they were unable to conquer their land and were driven out and north. They eventually captured the peaceful city of Leshem (a.k.a. Laish) and a handful of surrounding cities. This migration therefore moved them from their original southern territory, into the northern-most section of Israel, and therefore in the northern kingdom.
“When the territory of the people of Dan was lost to them, the people of Dan went up and fought against Leshem, and after capturing it and striking it with the sword they took possession of it and settled in it, calling Leshem, Dan, after the name of Dan their ancestor. This is the inheritance of the tribe of the people of Dan, according to their clans – these cities with their villages. (Josh 19:47-48)
The northern 10 tribes of Israel were ruled by Jeroboam (another former fugitive protected by Pharaoh), who reigned for 22 years. As noted in the Introduction, whereas Solomon allowed his heart to be led astray by idolatry, Jeroboam went far beyond that to institutionalizing idolatry as the national religion of Israel.
“So the king consulted, and made two golden calves, and he said to them, ‘It is too much for you to go up to Jerusalem; behold your gods, O Israel, that brought you up from the land of Egypt.’ He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in Dan.” (12:28-29)
The city of Dan was a logical political choice for Jeroboam’s idolatrous decision. First of all, this city was the northern bookend for the common “Dan to Beersheba” reference to the antipodes of the nation of Israel (c.f. Jud 20:1; 1 Sam 3:20, et al). More importantly, the people of Dan and their sordid history made the city a reasonable match for Jeroboam’s institutional idolatry.
“But the people of Dan took what Micah had made, and the priest who belonged to him, and they came to Laish, to a people quiet and unsuspecting, and struck them with the edge of the sword and burned the city with fire. And there was no deliverer because it was far from Sidon, and they had no dealings with anyone. It was in the valley that belongs to Beth-rehob. Then they rebuilt the city and lived in it. And they named the city Dan, after the name of Dan their ancestor, who was born to Israel; but the name of the city was Laish at the first. And the people of Dan set up the carved image for themselves, and Jonathan the son of Gershom, son of Moses, and his sons were priests to the tribe of the Danites until the day of the captivity of the land. So they set up Micah's carved image that he made, as long as the house of God was at Shiloh.” (Judg 18:27-31)
Situated in the Galilee region of Israel, near the Lebanon border and in the volatile Golan Heights area, Laish is an ancient, historic city. Archeologists have uncovered evidence there of civilizations dating back to the Neolithic Era (the Stone Age). In addition to the 5000 B.C. archeological findings, Egyptian documents and Mesopotamian texts dating back to the 19th century BC describe Leshem as a prominent and prosperous center for trade. A key post on the major caravan trade routes between Syria and Egypt and throughout the region, it was fortified with huge man-made earthen embankments, massive bulwarks or ramparts that encircled the entire city. The remains of these mighty bulwarks constitute one of the best examples of the defense systems of that period.
Sometime around the 18th century the patriarch Abraham and his men pursued the northern kings who had captured his nephew Lot, as far as Dan (Gen 14:14). It wasn't until the 11th century BC, some seven hundred years later, that peaceful and undefended Leshem was conquered by the Danites, who changed the name of the city to Dan.
Boasting one of the world’s most abundant springs, Tel Dan, as it is known today (it has also been referred to as Danos), is situated at the foot of Mount Hermon. (tel is an archaeological site that reveals layers of civilization built one over the other: e.g. Tel Aviv). Fed by the melted snows from the peak of Mount Hermon, the Dan River is one of the main tributaries of the Jordan River. With its strategic location, ample water supplies and extremely fertile soil, Dan became the most important city of the northern part of the Kingdom of Israel, and a major center of worship – unfortunately idolatry.
In addition to building the cultic center, or high place for the worship of his golden calf, Jeroboam also added another fortification ring outside the old city wall, which included a monumental gate. This gate was destroyed during the Syrian invasion that the Judean king Asa initiated at the turn of the 9th century BC (1 Kgs 15:20). The city was restored and re-fortified shortly thereafter by Omri and his son Ahab, who re-erected the massive gate and greatly expanded the cult center, at the north end of the city. During the reign of Jeroboam II, beginning of 8th century BC, a monumental staircase was added to the south side of the high place. Dan was sacked by Tiglath Pileser, king of Assyria, in 732 BC, and while later rebuilt, it never regained its former importance.
Today Tel Dan is one of Israel’s most important and ongoing archeological sites. The massive city gate complex and a large section of the wall of Israelite Dan have been uncovered at the foot of the southern side of the tel. A wide, paved courtyard leads to the inner Canaanite gate complex, consisting of two towers flanking a recessed arched gateway. Stone steps lead from the outside to the nearly eight feet wide entrance. These gates were built of large basalt stones, beyond which a wide road winds its way up the slope into the heart of the city.
The high place is located on the north side of the tel, adjacent to the Dan Spring, whose waters were used for the purifying baths associated with the pagan rites. Thanks to the continuous excavations since 1966, archeologists have been able to uncover significant findings that support the biblical accounts of Dan. Notably, the high place established by Jeroboam for the golden calf worship and expanded upon by Ahab and Jeroboam II, has been uncovered. A stone platform believed to have been the podium upon which the golden calf stood has been brought to light, with the location of the altar identified, down the steps from the high place. Archeological evidence seems to indicate that in addition to the golden calf, other heathen gods were worshipped here as well, differing with the times and influences in power. In terms of extra-biblical support, the Jewish historian Josephus Flavius mentions Dan in his accounts and confirms it was the site of Jeroboam’s golden calf (The Jewish War, 4:3).
Tel Dan is widely regarded as one of Israel’s most ancient and most beautiful sites. The 120 acre Tel Dan Nature Reserve, consisting of numerous brooks and streams, boasts of lavish sceneries and a unique combination of nature and culture. The stunning beauty, however, is marred by the many bunkers that testify to its strategic value in countless wars, most notably during the intense Six Day War in 1967 when the Syrians attacked Tel Dan.
As noted earlier, the pagan history of Dan made it a logical and strategic selection for Jeroboam to place one of his golden calves. However, the other city he selected was an extreme slap of sacrilege: Bethel.
Another ancient city visited by Abraham, the town was originally called Luz (Gen 28:19). Archaeological excavations indicate human settlement dates back to the Chalcolithic period, roughly between 4500 B.C. and 3500 B.C. The period between the Neolithic (Stone Age) and the Bronze Age, this is also referred to as the Copper Age, chalcos being the Greek term for copper. During the 16th century B.C., Luz was transformed from a village to a major, fortified Canaanite city, with 11-foot thick stone walls and some of the best-laid masonry of that period yet uncovered in Palestine.
Abraham encamped in the vicinity and built an altar to the Lord (Gen 12:8; 13:3-4). His grandson Jacob, while fleeing from his brother Esau to the land of Paddan-aram and his uncle Laban, had the vision of the staircase leading up to heaven here. In the morning, he set up his stone pillow as a pillar, a monument to the God who had visited him, and poured oil upon it.
“And [Jacob] was afraid and said, ‘How awesome is this place! This is none other than the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven.” (Gen 28:17)
Jacob called the place Bethel, “house of God,” which eventually replaced Luz as the name of the city. Jacob later revisited the place on his return trip back to Canaan.
During the time of the conquest under Joshua, Bethel (also referred to as Beth-aven or simply Aven) was one of the royal Canaanite cities (Josh 12:16). It was initially assigned to the Benjamites, but later taken by the descendants of Joseph (Judg 1:22-26). Around 1235 B.C., the city was destroyed in a great fire that left debris five feet thick in some places. This is believed to have been the conquest by the sons of Joseph, who eventually rebuilt the city, though it lacked its former glory and was of inferior quality to the Canaanite construction.
During the period of the Judges the Ark of the Covenant was located in Bethel (Judg 1:26-27), the home of the prophetess Deborah was nearby (Judg 4:5), it was one of the three cities in Israel that the prophet Samuel chose to judge the Israelites (1 Sam 7:16), and it appears that for some time “the house of God” was the center of worship of Yahweh, the God of Israel (1 Sam 10:3).
Archeological findings indicate the city was greatly expanded and improved during the reigns of David and Solomon, but it rose to its height after the Kingdom of Israel was rendered in two. Jeroboam decided to place one of his golden calves in Bethel and make it one of his two centers for the national idolatry that he instituted. That he would select a city with the history of being known as the “house of God” and the center of Yahweh worship, to transform it into a house of idolatry, speaks volumes as to his determined intent to unilaterally lead Israel away from following the Lord, the true God of Israel.
The extreme degree to which this former “house of God” went down the degraded path of idolatry can be seen in the later, scathing denunciations of Amos and Hosea, who referred to the city as the “sin of Israel”:
“Also the high places of Aven, the sin of Israel, will be destroyed; thorn and thistle will grow on their altars; then they will say to the mountains, ‘Cover us!’ and to the hills, ‘Fall on us!’” (Hos 10:8)
Legend has it that Bethel was sacked by the Assyrians when they overran the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and Shalmaneser, king of the Assyrians, carried away Jeroboam’s golden calf, signifying his victory over the Israelites’ god.
When the Israelites were allowed to return from exile, Nehemiah records that Bethel was only a small village, but it regained some of its former stature during the Hellenistic period and grew even larger under the Roman occupation. The Roman troops who eventually sacked Jerusalem in 70 A.D. were garrisoned in Bethel.
Evidences in the area show that the city continued to exist throughout the Byzantine era, when it had a significant Eastern Orthodox Christian population. Bethel's church fell into ruin sometime after the Arabs conquered the area, but it was later rebuilt by the Crusaders in the 1100s. After the Crusaders were defeated by the Muslim forces of Saladin in 1187, the church was destroyed and the village was soon abandoned. In 1892 Bedouins from Jordan migrated to the site, built a mosque on top of the church's old site, and gave it its current name, Beitin.
Today, Bethel is still identified with the modern Beitin or Benin, a Palestinian village of some 400 inhabitants, which stands on a knoll east of the road to Nablus, in the central West Bank region, roughly four miles northeast of Ramallah. The nearby Israeli settlement of Beit El has also been claimed to be the site of Bethel. There are still four springs of good water around Beitin, and the town is well-known for its olives, almond, fig and especially its plum groves.
Jeroboam’s institutional embracement of idolatry set the standard for how the future kings of Israel were to be compared/contrasted. After the idolatry, assassinations, mass murders, and suicide of the first five kings of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Omri, the erstwhile commander of the Israelite army, gained the throne. The Bible sums up his 12-year reign:
“Omri did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, and did more evil than all who were before him. For he walked in all the way of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and in the sins that he made Israel to sin, provoking the Lord, the God of Israel, to anger by their idols.” (1 Kings 16:25-26)
Upon his death, we finally meet one of the main characters in the study of Elijah:
“Now Ahab the son of Omri became king over Israel in the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah, and Ahab the son of Omri reigned over Israel in Samaria twenty-two years.” (16:29)
One older translation captures the literal translation of the king’s name:
“Now Achab the son of Amri reigned over Israel in the eight and thirtieth year of Asa king of Juda. And Achab the son of Amri reigned over Israel in Samaria two and twenty years.” (Douay-Rheims)
King Ahab was the monarch over Israel during all but the last few years of Elijah’s ministry. The seventh king in a wicked succession of rulers over the Northern Kingdom, and considering Omri was the worst thus far, how far did this apple fall from the tree?
“Ahab the son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD more than all who were before him.” (16:30)
“Ahab did more to provoke the Lord, the God of Israel, to anger than all the kings of Israel who were before him.” (16:33, ESV)
The word “provoke” comes from the Hebrew kā‘as, a verb used 55 times in the Old Testament. While a relatively common term in the Hebrew, it is used 44 times (80%) to specifically describe Israel’s provoking Yahweh to a hot or burning anger, through her constant embracement of idolatry.
The sheer intensity of this provocation and the incendiary nature of the holy fire that was ignited are captured in 2 Kings 23:26:
“Nevertheless, the LORD did not turn away from the heat of His fierce anger, which burned against Judah because of all that Manasseh had done to provoke Him to anger.” (NIV)
In case the picture hadn’t been painted vividly enough relative to the extent to which Ahab wholeheartedly threw himself into idolatry and wickedness, we read later in chapter 21:
“Surely there was no one like Ahab who sold himself to do evil in the sight of the LORD.” (21:25)
The Hebrew term for “sold” is mākar, meaning that Ahab completely and utterly sold out to do evil. There was absolutely no holding back, no reservation, not even a hint of remorse or a second thought. He had sold out – lock, stock and barrel.
Ahab was bad, and he had grown up under a terrible influence in his father, Omri. Yet Ahab flew off the wicked chart when he made the single biggest mistake of his life, marrying the next main character to enter the stage – Jezebel:
“It came about, as though it had been a trivial thing for him to walk in the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, that he married Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and went to serve Baal and worshiped him.” (16:31, NASB)
Another way of reading that first line:
“The least that he did was to follow the sinful example of Jeroboam son of Nebat…” (NJB)
Grasp that – “the least that he did…”
The Hebrew text is actually a question: “was it a light thing” or “was it trivial”:
“Hath it been light his walking in the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat?” (YLT)
In other words, all of the other sins he committed, in walking in the path of Jeroboam, “who caused Israel to sin,” were lightweight in consequences when compared to his marriage of Jezebel. The actions of the previous kings of Israel were petty misdemeanors when stacked against Ahab’s reprehensible marriage with Jezebel and the resulting product of that union. As in the case of the foreign wives of Solomon, Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel was his great undoing.
The mention of Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel is of extreme significance, considering the absence of identification for the previous kings’ wives. In contradistinction with the other kings, who were the dominant ruler and their wives unnamed, inconsequential bit players, Ahab was Jezebel’s marionette. She was the dominant force in their marriage. With a nod to My Big Fat Greek Wedding, if Ahab was the head of the kingdom, she was the neck that turned the head. While Omri had been a terrible role model for Ahab to follow, Jezebel was the evil brains and conductor who orchestrated Ahab’s actions. In her hands Ahab was nothing more than a mere puppet:
“No one else so completely sold himself to what was evil in the Lord’s sight as Ahab did under the influence of his wife Jezebel.” (21:25-26, NLT)
The Hebrew term here is sût, meaning “to seduce, instigate, stir up”
Other translations read: “urged on by his wife” or “because Jezebel his wife incited him,” etc.
We know what atrocities and harm can result from someone being under the influence of alcohol, but booze is child’s play in comparison to Jezebel. While this marriage was undoubtedly a political alliance intended to address the growing power and potential threat of Damascus (Syria), as well as to further strengthen the Northern Kingdom’s position in the region, Ahab’s marriage unleashed an evil that F.B. Meyers refers to as “the Lady Macbeth of the Old Testament, demon possessed and Satan’s woman of the hour.” Who was this helpmeet for evil?
Jezebel was the daughter of Eth-baal (“Baal is with him”), king of the Sidonians (Zidonians), the historical name for the Phoenicians. According to Josephus, Eth-baal was the high priest of the great temple of Ashtaroth (Ashtoreth, Astarte – the female consort of Baal) in Tyre, and his brother, Philetes (Phelles), was the king of the Phoenician empire. At the age of 36, Eth-baal murdered his brother (the last of the descendants of Hiram I of Tyre) and seized the throne, which he occupied for thirty-two years. The regicide Eth-baal headed up what some have referred to as being “the most wicked dynasty then in power” (Edersheim), a dynasty that would last for over a century.
Consider the extreme parental legacy of both Ahab and Jezebel! This sacerdotal and regicide upbringing of Jezebel clearly influenced this very strong, bold, unscrupulous, idolatrous and occultist woman:
“King Joram demanded, ‘Do you come in peace, Jehu?’ Jehu replied, ‘How can there be peace as long as the idolatry and witchcraft of your mother, Jezebel, are all around us?’” (2 Kgs 9:22, NLT)
When Ahab married Jezebel, her idolatrous heritage, in its full debauched sense, became the official religion of her adoptive country, with Jezebel as the great patroness of Baal in Israel. In a very short time all visible traces of the pure worship of Yahweh vanished from the land and gross idolatry became rampant. While the golden calves of Jeroboam were worshipped at Dan and Beersheba, an entire temple complex to Baal was built in Samaria – the capital city.
“He erected an altar for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria. And Ahab made an Asherah.” (16:32-33)
All the ugliness and depravity of the Canaanite religious practices was introduced and enforced from the very capital of Israel – legitimizing and institutionalizing the most base and revolting idolatry which the world has ever known. Idolatry as an institution became far more entrenched than in the past, with full-blown fertility rites officially sanctioned and under the royal auspices of the crown. At her table Jezebel fed 450 priests of Baal and 400 of Asherah (1 Kgs 16:31, 21; 18:19; 22:6).
As if that wasn’t enough, Jezebel used her position to root out and kill everyone who worshipped Yahweh, the God of Israel. While Jeroboam had institutionalized idolatry, Ahab and Jezebel openly declared all-out war on Yahweh. They proclaimed Baal was the god of the Kingdom of Israel. Yahweh was to be wiped from the face of the land. The priests of Baal took full charge of the religious life of Israel, and the prophets of Yahweh were attacked by her orders and put to the sword (1 Kgs 18:13; 19:10; 2 Kgs 9:7).
Jezebel, as a tyrant and murderess, was truly a daughter worthy of her father, the idolatrous priest and regicide. Her demonic and idolatrous influence extended south to Judah when her daughter, Athaliah married Jehoram, who later became king of Judah. Upon his death, her son Ahaziah became king. So while Jezebel’s grandson was king over Judah, her son Joram was king over Israel. In other words, both kingdoms simultaneously had a queen mother and a king with the same idolatrous DNA. When Ahaziah, Joram and Jezebel were all killed by the actions of Jehu on his way to the throne of Israel, Athalia went on a murderous spree before taking the crown of Judah herself, killing all of the royal line of Judah except the young child Joash, who had been hidden from her bloody rampage (2 Kgs 8:18; 25-27; 11:1-15). Looked at another way, Jezebel’s evil line came one young child away from destroying the prophesied line of the Messiah.
Extending further her evil influence, Jezebel was also the grand-aunt of Dido, the founder of historic Carthage, another region which would adopt the heinous religion she propagated.
The uncertainty of the meaning of Jezebel’s name brings up an interesting facet of Hebrew history. It’s believed that her true Phoenician name was Abizebel, meaning “my father (Baal) is noble” or “Baal is the prince.” The conjecture is that Hebrew scribes later intentionally altered her name by deliberately dropping a letter from her name, in order to avoid referencing Baal and to assign a name carrying a dishonorable meaning.
’î is understood as “no” (hence “no prince”), and Zebul can be read Zibl (“dung”; hence “Where is the dung?”).
’îzebel carries the concept of “untouched” (not “chaste” as some interpret) or “un-husbanded” or “without cohabitation” and by dishonorable extension – “dunghill.” A woman who was without a husband and untouchable was an outcast, lacking in honor, as worthless as a dunghill.
Jezebel was such a fixture and caricature for evil in the Hebrew mind that long after her death her name lived as the byword for all that was detestable. In Rev. 2:20 she is used as the archetype of those who encourage immorality and false teaching, in the same way that she engulfed Israel in idolatry:
“that woman [Iezabel], who calls herself a prophetess and is teaching and seducing My servants to practice sexual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols.” (ESV)
Some members of the church at Thyatira were being led astray by another strong, unscrupulous and immoral woman, whose followers “prided themselves upon their enlightened liberalism” (Rev 2:24).
Thousands of years later, her name still registers. In 1938 Hollywood released a drama by the name of Jezebel, starring Henry Fonda and Bette Davis. The actress played the role of a spoiled, headstrong Southern belle who, when Fonda wouldn’t leave work to go with her to shop for a dress, threw a tantrum and purchased a brazen red one for the most important ball of the year – one where white dresses for unmarried women are expected.
Perhaps in today’s “sophisticated and enlightened” society a Jezebel would find many admirers. Not so coincidentally, there is a magazine by the name of Jezebel, a monument to high fashion, beauty, glamour, and astrology. This magazine boasts the highest and best of Atlanta’s luxury living, a far more chic reference for defiant hedonism, with astrology thrown in for good measure.
Going back to our study, consider the parallels here: King David established Jerusalem as the capital of the nation of Israel. Omri establishes Samaria as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel. David’s son, Solomon, builds a temple to the one true God in the capital, which becomes the center of Yahweh worship. Omri’s son, Ahab, builds a temple to the false god Baal in the capital, which becomes the center of Ball worship. Solomon’s wives led his heart astray. Ahab’s wife drove him to the depths of hell.
Closing out chapter 16 of 1 Kings is a verse that appears to be out-of-place and a rather arbitrary departure from the main narrative about Ahab:
“In his days Hiel of Bethel built Jericho. He laid its foundation at the cost of Abiram his firstborn, and set up its gates at the cost of his youngest son Segub, according to the word of the Lord, which he spoke by Joshua the son of Nun” (vs. 34).
What could this verse possible add to the chronicle of Ahab’s, more, Jezebel’s reign?
After the conquest of Jericho, the walls of which had been supernaturally destroyed, “Joshua laid an oath on them at that time, saying, ‘Cursed before the Lord be the man who rises up and rebuilds this city, Jericho. At the cost of his firstborn shall he lay its foundation, and at the cost of his youngest son shall he set up its gates’” (Josh 6:26).
The massive fortifications of Jericho had lain in ruins since the time of Joshua, although it always remained an in habited settlement (Judg 3:13; 2 Sam 10:5). Throughout Israel’s history, the curse invoked by Joshua and the fear of the Lord would have deterred anyone from actually rebuilding and refortifying the city – a defiant raising up of the city walls and gates that God had thrown down.
The extreme level of moral and religious decay in the land of Israel during Ahab’s pagan rule is highlighted by the actions of Hiel, an Israelite whose name means “God lives; the life of God” and who is from the city of Bethel, which means “the house of God.” Recall this was the same city in which Jeroboam had placed one of his golden calves. Coincidence?
This rebuilding undoubtedly required approval from Ahab prior to fortifying a major city within Ahab’s kingdom. Ahab considered himself as a builder of cities (22:39), and this likely may have been a part of his broader campaign against the Moabites, who had thrown off the yoke of servitude placed upon them by David.
The rebuilding of Jericho’s city walls in the face of Joshua’s long-standing curse was met with the fulfillment of the curse, more than five hundred years after it was pronounced. Scholars are divided as to how the curse was fulfilled, whether Hiel’s eldest and youngest sons died due to divine intervention, or whether they were offered up by their father in a foundation sacrifice.
Foundation offerings were a well-known Near Eastern practice, as evidenced by the archeological discovery of skeletal remains of children found buried under the thresholds of houses. DeVries writes regarding vs. 34: “The foundation sacrifice, revealed by modern archaeology, is probably what was involved. The children named were probably infants, dead or alive, placed in jars and inserted into the masonry, propitiating the gods and warding off evil.”
Jamieson aptly sums up: “The unresisted act of Hiel affords a painful evidence of how far the people of Israel had lost all knowledge of, or respect for, the word of God.”
With such a backdrop of history and in the face of such unrelenting evil, idolatry and gratuitous defiance and hostility towards Yahweh, for such a time as this, the Lord sends in His appointed prophet – Elijah – whom we’ll meet in the next verse.
Yet it should be noted that while Solomon was still alive, the Lord raised up two adversaries, Hadad the Edomite (who had fled to Egypt and was protected by Pharaoh) and Rezon, who between them sliced away the northern and southern extremities of the Israelite kingdom (11:14-25).
When Solomon’s son, Rehoboam, gained the throne, he foolishly ignored the advice of his counselors and followed instead the machismo advice of his young friends, resulting in his losing the entire northern 10 tribes of Israel. This left him with just the tribes of Benjamin and Judah to rule, known as the Kingdom of Judah (12:1-24).
Incidentally, a review of the maps of Israel that show the tribes and their holdings ostensibly has the tribe of Simeon also within the Kingdom of Judah. However, the territory of the Simeonites was essentially absorbed by Judah, with little reference regarding the territory of Simeon from the book of Judges through the end of the Old Testament.
“The inheritance of the people of Simeon formed part of the territory of the people of Judah. Because the portion of the people of Judah was too large for them, the people of Simeon obtained an inheritance in the midst of their inheritance.” (Josh 19:9)
Furthermore, while the tribe of Dan initially had been given the territory due west of Benjamin, which would also place this tribe in the southern kingdom, they were unable to conquer their land and were driven out and north. They eventually captured the peaceful city of Leshem (a.k.a. Laish) and a handful of surrounding cities. This migration therefore moved them from their original southern territory, into the northern-most section of Israel, and therefore in the northern kingdom.
“When the territory of the people of Dan was lost to them, the people of Dan went up and fought against Leshem, and after capturing it and striking it with the sword they took possession of it and settled in it, calling Leshem, Dan, after the name of Dan their ancestor. This is the inheritance of the tribe of the people of Dan, according to their clans – these cities with their villages. (Josh 19:47-48)
The northern 10 tribes of Israel were ruled by Jeroboam (another former fugitive protected by Pharaoh), who reigned for 22 years. As noted in the Introduction, whereas Solomon allowed his heart to be led astray by idolatry, Jeroboam went far beyond that to institutionalizing idolatry as the national religion of Israel.
“So the king consulted, and made two golden calves, and he said to them, ‘It is too much for you to go up to Jerusalem; behold your gods, O Israel, that brought you up from the land of Egypt.’ He set one in Bethel, and the other he put in Dan.” (12:28-29)
The city of Dan was a logical political choice for Jeroboam’s idolatrous decision. First of all, this city was the northern bookend for the common “Dan to Beersheba” reference to the antipodes of the nation of Israel (c.f. Jud 20:1; 1 Sam 3:20, et al). More importantly, the people of Dan and their sordid history made the city a reasonable match for Jeroboam’s institutional idolatry.
“But the people of Dan took what Micah had made, and the priest who belonged to him, and they came to Laish, to a people quiet and unsuspecting, and struck them with the edge of the sword and burned the city with fire. And there was no deliverer because it was far from Sidon, and they had no dealings with anyone. It was in the valley that belongs to Beth-rehob. Then they rebuilt the city and lived in it. And they named the city Dan, after the name of Dan their ancestor, who was born to Israel; but the name of the city was Laish at the first. And the people of Dan set up the carved image for themselves, and Jonathan the son of Gershom, son of Moses, and his sons were priests to the tribe of the Danites until the day of the captivity of the land. So they set up Micah's carved image that he made, as long as the house of God was at Shiloh.” (Judg 18:27-31)
Situated in the Galilee region of Israel, near the Lebanon border and in the volatile Golan Heights area, Laish is an ancient, historic city. Archeologists have uncovered evidence there of civilizations dating back to the Neolithic Era (the Stone Age). In addition to the 5000 B.C. archeological findings, Egyptian documents and Mesopotamian texts dating back to the 19th century BC describe Leshem as a prominent and prosperous center for trade. A key post on the major caravan trade routes between Syria and Egypt and throughout the region, it was fortified with huge man-made earthen embankments, massive bulwarks or ramparts that encircled the entire city. The remains of these mighty bulwarks constitute one of the best examples of the defense systems of that period.
Sometime around the 18th century the patriarch Abraham and his men pursued the northern kings who had captured his nephew Lot, as far as Dan (Gen 14:14). It wasn't until the 11th century BC, some seven hundred years later, that peaceful and undefended Leshem was conquered by the Danites, who changed the name of the city to Dan.
Boasting one of the world’s most abundant springs, Tel Dan, as it is known today (it has also been referred to as Danos), is situated at the foot of Mount Hermon. (tel is an archaeological site that reveals layers of civilization built one over the other: e.g. Tel Aviv). Fed by the melted snows from the peak of Mount Hermon, the Dan River is one of the main tributaries of the Jordan River. With its strategic location, ample water supplies and extremely fertile soil, Dan became the most important city of the northern part of the Kingdom of Israel, and a major center of worship – unfortunately idolatry.
In addition to building the cultic center, or high place for the worship of his golden calf, Jeroboam also added another fortification ring outside the old city wall, which included a monumental gate. This gate was destroyed during the Syrian invasion that the Judean king Asa initiated at the turn of the 9th century BC (1 Kgs 15:20). The city was restored and re-fortified shortly thereafter by Omri and his son Ahab, who re-erected the massive gate and greatly expanded the cult center, at the north end of the city. During the reign of Jeroboam II, beginning of 8th century BC, a monumental staircase was added to the south side of the high place. Dan was sacked by Tiglath Pileser, king of Assyria, in 732 BC, and while later rebuilt, it never regained its former importance.
Today Tel Dan is one of Israel’s most important and ongoing archeological sites. The massive city gate complex and a large section of the wall of Israelite Dan have been uncovered at the foot of the southern side of the tel. A wide, paved courtyard leads to the inner Canaanite gate complex, consisting of two towers flanking a recessed arched gateway. Stone steps lead from the outside to the nearly eight feet wide entrance. These gates were built of large basalt stones, beyond which a wide road winds its way up the slope into the heart of the city.
The high place is located on the north side of the tel, adjacent to the Dan Spring, whose waters were used for the purifying baths associated with the pagan rites. Thanks to the continuous excavations since 1966, archeologists have been able to uncover significant findings that support the biblical accounts of Dan. Notably, the high place established by Jeroboam for the golden calf worship and expanded upon by Ahab and Jeroboam II, has been uncovered. A stone platform believed to have been the podium upon which the golden calf stood has been brought to light, with the location of the altar identified, down the steps from the high place. Archeological evidence seems to indicate that in addition to the golden calf, other heathen gods were worshipped here as well, differing with the times and influences in power. In terms of extra-biblical support, the Jewish historian Josephus Flavius mentions Dan in his accounts and confirms it was the site of Jeroboam’s golden calf (The Jewish War, 4:3).
Tel Dan is widely regarded as one of Israel’s most ancient and most beautiful sites. The 120 acre Tel Dan Nature Reserve, consisting of numerous brooks and streams, boasts of lavish sceneries and a unique combination of nature and culture. The stunning beauty, however, is marred by the many bunkers that testify to its strategic value in countless wars, most notably during the intense Six Day War in 1967 when the Syrians attacked Tel Dan.
As noted earlier, the pagan history of Dan made it a logical and strategic selection for Jeroboam to place one of his golden calves. However, the other city he selected was an extreme slap of sacrilege: Bethel.
Another ancient city visited by Abraham, the town was originally called Luz (Gen 28:19). Archaeological excavations indicate human settlement dates back to the Chalcolithic period, roughly between 4500 B.C. and 3500 B.C. The period between the Neolithic (Stone Age) and the Bronze Age, this is also referred to as the Copper Age, chalcos being the Greek term for copper. During the 16th century B.C., Luz was transformed from a village to a major, fortified Canaanite city, with 11-foot thick stone walls and some of the best-laid masonry of that period yet uncovered in Palestine.
Abraham encamped in the vicinity and built an altar to the Lord (Gen 12:8; 13:3-4). His grandson Jacob, while fleeing from his brother Esau to the land of Paddan-aram and his uncle Laban, had the vision of the staircase leading up to heaven here. In the morning, he set up his stone pillow as a pillar, a monument to the God who had visited him, and poured oil upon it.
“And [Jacob] was afraid and said, ‘How awesome is this place! This is none other than the house of God, and this is the gate of heaven.” (Gen 28:17)
Jacob called the place Bethel, “house of God,” which eventually replaced Luz as the name of the city. Jacob later revisited the place on his return trip back to Canaan.
During the time of the conquest under Joshua, Bethel (also referred to as Beth-aven or simply Aven) was one of the royal Canaanite cities (Josh 12:16). It was initially assigned to the Benjamites, but later taken by the descendants of Joseph (Judg 1:22-26). Around 1235 B.C., the city was destroyed in a great fire that left debris five feet thick in some places. This is believed to have been the conquest by the sons of Joseph, who eventually rebuilt the city, though it lacked its former glory and was of inferior quality to the Canaanite construction.
During the period of the Judges the Ark of the Covenant was located in Bethel (Judg 1:26-27), the home of the prophetess Deborah was nearby (Judg 4:5), it was one of the three cities in Israel that the prophet Samuel chose to judge the Israelites (1 Sam 7:16), and it appears that for some time “the house of God” was the center of worship of Yahweh, the God of Israel (1 Sam 10:3).
Archeological findings indicate the city was greatly expanded and improved during the reigns of David and Solomon, but it rose to its height after the Kingdom of Israel was rendered in two. Jeroboam decided to place one of his golden calves in Bethel and make it one of his two centers for the national idolatry that he instituted. That he would select a city with the history of being known as the “house of God” and the center of Yahweh worship, to transform it into a house of idolatry, speaks volumes as to his determined intent to unilaterally lead Israel away from following the Lord, the true God of Israel.
The extreme degree to which this former “house of God” went down the degraded path of idolatry can be seen in the later, scathing denunciations of Amos and Hosea, who referred to the city as the “sin of Israel”:
“Also the high places of Aven, the sin of Israel, will be destroyed; thorn and thistle will grow on their altars; then they will say to the mountains, ‘Cover us!’ and to the hills, ‘Fall on us!’” (Hos 10:8)
Legend has it that Bethel was sacked by the Assyrians when they overran the Northern Kingdom of Israel, and Shalmaneser, king of the Assyrians, carried away Jeroboam’s golden calf, signifying his victory over the Israelites’ god.
When the Israelites were allowed to return from exile, Nehemiah records that Bethel was only a small village, but it regained some of its former stature during the Hellenistic period and grew even larger under the Roman occupation. The Roman troops who eventually sacked Jerusalem in 70 A.D. were garrisoned in Bethel.
Evidences in the area show that the city continued to exist throughout the Byzantine era, when it had a significant Eastern Orthodox Christian population. Bethel's church fell into ruin sometime after the Arabs conquered the area, but it was later rebuilt by the Crusaders in the 1100s. After the Crusaders were defeated by the Muslim forces of Saladin in 1187, the church was destroyed and the village was soon abandoned. In 1892 Bedouins from Jordan migrated to the site, built a mosque on top of the church's old site, and gave it its current name, Beitin.
Today, Bethel is still identified with the modern Beitin or Benin, a Palestinian village of some 400 inhabitants, which stands on a knoll east of the road to Nablus, in the central West Bank region, roughly four miles northeast of Ramallah. The nearby Israeli settlement of Beit El has also been claimed to be the site of Bethel. There are still four springs of good water around Beitin, and the town is well-known for its olives, almond, fig and especially its plum groves.
Jeroboam’s institutional embracement of idolatry set the standard for how the future kings of Israel were to be compared/contrasted. After the idolatry, assassinations, mass murders, and suicide of the first five kings of the Northern Kingdom of Israel, Omri, the erstwhile commander of the Israelite army, gained the throne. The Bible sums up his 12-year reign:
“Omri did what was evil in the sight of the Lord, and did more evil than all who were before him. For he walked in all the way of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, and in the sins that he made Israel to sin, provoking the Lord, the God of Israel, to anger by their idols.” (1 Kings 16:25-26)
Upon his death, we finally meet one of the main characters in the study of Elijah:
“Now Ahab the son of Omri became king over Israel in the thirty-eighth year of Asa king of Judah, and Ahab the son of Omri reigned over Israel in Samaria twenty-two years.” (16:29)
One older translation captures the literal translation of the king’s name:
“Now Achab the son of Amri reigned over Israel in the eight and thirtieth year of Asa king of Juda. And Achab the son of Amri reigned over Israel in Samaria two and twenty years.” (Douay-Rheims)
King Ahab was the monarch over Israel during all but the last few years of Elijah’s ministry. The seventh king in a wicked succession of rulers over the Northern Kingdom, and considering Omri was the worst thus far, how far did this apple fall from the tree?
“Ahab the son of Omri did evil in the sight of the LORD more than all who were before him.” (16:30)
“Ahab did more to provoke the Lord, the God of Israel, to anger than all the kings of Israel who were before him.” (16:33, ESV)
The word “provoke” comes from the Hebrew kā‘as, a verb used 55 times in the Old Testament. While a relatively common term in the Hebrew, it is used 44 times (80%) to specifically describe Israel’s provoking Yahweh to a hot or burning anger, through her constant embracement of idolatry.
The sheer intensity of this provocation and the incendiary nature of the holy fire that was ignited are captured in 2 Kings 23:26:
“Nevertheless, the LORD did not turn away from the heat of His fierce anger, which burned against Judah because of all that Manasseh had done to provoke Him to anger.” (NIV)
In case the picture hadn’t been painted vividly enough relative to the extent to which Ahab wholeheartedly threw himself into idolatry and wickedness, we read later in chapter 21:
“Surely there was no one like Ahab who sold himself to do evil in the sight of the LORD.” (21:25)
The Hebrew term for “sold” is mākar, meaning that Ahab completely and utterly sold out to do evil. There was absolutely no holding back, no reservation, not even a hint of remorse or a second thought. He had sold out – lock, stock and barrel.
Ahab was bad, and he had grown up under a terrible influence in his father, Omri. Yet Ahab flew off the wicked chart when he made the single biggest mistake of his life, marrying the next main character to enter the stage – Jezebel:
“It came about, as though it had been a trivial thing for him to walk in the sins of Jeroboam the son of Nebat, that he married Jezebel the daughter of Ethbaal king of the Sidonians, and went to serve Baal and worshiped him.” (16:31, NASB)
Another way of reading that first line:
“The least that he did was to follow the sinful example of Jeroboam son of Nebat…” (NJB)
Grasp that – “the least that he did…”
The Hebrew text is actually a question: “was it a light thing” or “was it trivial”:
“Hath it been light his walking in the sins of Jeroboam son of Nebat?” (YLT)
In other words, all of the other sins he committed, in walking in the path of Jeroboam, “who caused Israel to sin,” were lightweight in consequences when compared to his marriage of Jezebel. The actions of the previous kings of Israel were petty misdemeanors when stacked against Ahab’s reprehensible marriage with Jezebel and the resulting product of that union. As in the case of the foreign wives of Solomon, Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel was his great undoing.
The mention of Ahab’s marriage to Jezebel is of extreme significance, considering the absence of identification for the previous kings’ wives. In contradistinction with the other kings, who were the dominant ruler and their wives unnamed, inconsequential bit players, Ahab was Jezebel’s marionette. She was the dominant force in their marriage. With a nod to My Big Fat Greek Wedding, if Ahab was the head of the kingdom, she was the neck that turned the head. While Omri had been a terrible role model for Ahab to follow, Jezebel was the evil brains and conductor who orchestrated Ahab’s actions. In her hands Ahab was nothing more than a mere puppet:
“No one else so completely sold himself to what was evil in the Lord’s sight as Ahab did under the influence of his wife Jezebel.” (21:25-26, NLT)
The Hebrew term here is sût, meaning “to seduce, instigate, stir up”
Other translations read: “urged on by his wife” or “because Jezebel his wife incited him,” etc.
We know what atrocities and harm can result from someone being under the influence of alcohol, but booze is child’s play in comparison to Jezebel. While this marriage was undoubtedly a political alliance intended to address the growing power and potential threat of Damascus (Syria), as well as to further strengthen the Northern Kingdom’s position in the region, Ahab’s marriage unleashed an evil that F.B. Meyers refers to as “the Lady Macbeth of the Old Testament, demon possessed and Satan’s woman of the hour.” Who was this helpmeet for evil?
Jezebel was the daughter of Eth-baal (“Baal is with him”), king of the Sidonians (Zidonians), the historical name for the Phoenicians. According to Josephus, Eth-baal was the high priest of the great temple of Ashtaroth (Ashtoreth, Astarte – the female consort of Baal) in Tyre, and his brother, Philetes (Phelles), was the king of the Phoenician empire. At the age of 36, Eth-baal murdered his brother (the last of the descendants of Hiram I of Tyre) and seized the throne, which he occupied for thirty-two years. The regicide Eth-baal headed up what some have referred to as being “the most wicked dynasty then in power” (Edersheim), a dynasty that would last for over a century.
Consider the extreme parental legacy of both Ahab and Jezebel! This sacerdotal and regicide upbringing of Jezebel clearly influenced this very strong, bold, unscrupulous, idolatrous and occultist woman:
“King Joram demanded, ‘Do you come in peace, Jehu?’ Jehu replied, ‘How can there be peace as long as the idolatry and witchcraft of your mother, Jezebel, are all around us?’” (2 Kgs 9:22, NLT)
When Ahab married Jezebel, her idolatrous heritage, in its full debauched sense, became the official religion of her adoptive country, with Jezebel as the great patroness of Baal in Israel. In a very short time all visible traces of the pure worship of Yahweh vanished from the land and gross idolatry became rampant. While the golden calves of Jeroboam were worshipped at Dan and Beersheba, an entire temple complex to Baal was built in Samaria – the capital city.
“He erected an altar for Baal in the house of Baal, which he built in Samaria. And Ahab made an Asherah.” (16:32-33)
All the ugliness and depravity of the Canaanite religious practices was introduced and enforced from the very capital of Israel – legitimizing and institutionalizing the most base and revolting idolatry which the world has ever known. Idolatry as an institution became far more entrenched than in the past, with full-blown fertility rites officially sanctioned and under the royal auspices of the crown. At her table Jezebel fed 450 priests of Baal and 400 of Asherah (1 Kgs 16:31, 21; 18:19; 22:6).
As if that wasn’t enough, Jezebel used her position to root out and kill everyone who worshipped Yahweh, the God of Israel. While Jeroboam had institutionalized idolatry, Ahab and Jezebel openly declared all-out war on Yahweh. They proclaimed Baal was the god of the Kingdom of Israel. Yahweh was to be wiped from the face of the land. The priests of Baal took full charge of the religious life of Israel, and the prophets of Yahweh were attacked by her orders and put to the sword (1 Kgs 18:13; 19:10; 2 Kgs 9:7).
Jezebel, as a tyrant and murderess, was truly a daughter worthy of her father, the idolatrous priest and regicide. Her demonic and idolatrous influence extended south to Judah when her daughter, Athaliah married Jehoram, who later became king of Judah. Upon his death, her son Ahaziah became king. So while Jezebel’s grandson was king over Judah, her son Joram was king over Israel. In other words, both kingdoms simultaneously had a queen mother and a king with the same idolatrous DNA. When Ahaziah, Joram and Jezebel were all killed by the actions of Jehu on his way to the throne of Israel, Athalia went on a murderous spree before taking the crown of Judah herself, killing all of the royal line of Judah except the young child Joash, who had been hidden from her bloody rampage (2 Kgs 8:18; 25-27; 11:1-15). Looked at another way, Jezebel’s evil line came one young child away from destroying the prophesied line of the Messiah.
Extending further her evil influence, Jezebel was also the grand-aunt of Dido, the founder of historic Carthage, another region which would adopt the heinous religion she propagated.
The uncertainty of the meaning of Jezebel’s name brings up an interesting facet of Hebrew history. It’s believed that her true Phoenician name was Abizebel, meaning “my father (Baal) is noble” or “Baal is the prince.” The conjecture is that Hebrew scribes later intentionally altered her name by deliberately dropping a letter from her name, in order to avoid referencing Baal and to assign a name carrying a dishonorable meaning.
’î is understood as “no” (hence “no prince”), and Zebul can be read Zibl (“dung”; hence “Where is the dung?”).
’îzebel carries the concept of “untouched” (not “chaste” as some interpret) or “un-husbanded” or “without cohabitation” and by dishonorable extension – “dunghill.” A woman who was without a husband and untouchable was an outcast, lacking in honor, as worthless as a dunghill.
Jezebel was such a fixture and caricature for evil in the Hebrew mind that long after her death her name lived as the byword for all that was detestable. In Rev. 2:20 she is used as the archetype of those who encourage immorality and false teaching, in the same way that she engulfed Israel in idolatry:
“that woman [Iezabel], who calls herself a prophetess and is teaching and seducing My servants to practice sexual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols.” (ESV)
Some members of the church at Thyatira were being led astray by another strong, unscrupulous and immoral woman, whose followers “prided themselves upon their enlightened liberalism” (Rev 2:24).
Thousands of years later, her name still registers. In 1938 Hollywood released a drama by the name of Jezebel, starring Henry Fonda and Bette Davis. The actress played the role of a spoiled, headstrong Southern belle who, when Fonda wouldn’t leave work to go with her to shop for a dress, threw a tantrum and purchased a brazen red one for the most important ball of the year – one where white dresses for unmarried women are expected.
Perhaps in today’s “sophisticated and enlightened” society a Jezebel would find many admirers. Not so coincidentally, there is a magazine by the name of Jezebel, a monument to high fashion, beauty, glamour, and astrology. This magazine boasts the highest and best of Atlanta’s luxury living, a far more chic reference for defiant hedonism, with astrology thrown in for good measure.
Going back to our study, consider the parallels here: King David established Jerusalem as the capital of the nation of Israel. Omri establishes Samaria as the capital of the Kingdom of Israel. David’s son, Solomon, builds a temple to the one true God in the capital, which becomes the center of Yahweh worship. Omri’s son, Ahab, builds a temple to the false god Baal in the capital, which becomes the center of Ball worship. Solomon’s wives led his heart astray. Ahab’s wife drove him to the depths of hell.
Closing out chapter 16 of 1 Kings is a verse that appears to be out-of-place and a rather arbitrary departure from the main narrative about Ahab:
“In his days Hiel of Bethel built Jericho. He laid its foundation at the cost of Abiram his firstborn, and set up its gates at the cost of his youngest son Segub, according to the word of the Lord, which he spoke by Joshua the son of Nun” (vs. 34).
What could this verse possible add to the chronicle of Ahab’s, more, Jezebel’s reign?
After the conquest of Jericho, the walls of which had been supernaturally destroyed, “Joshua laid an oath on them at that time, saying, ‘Cursed before the Lord be the man who rises up and rebuilds this city, Jericho. At the cost of his firstborn shall he lay its foundation, and at the cost of his youngest son shall he set up its gates’” (Josh 6:26).
The massive fortifications of Jericho had lain in ruins since the time of Joshua, although it always remained an in habited settlement (Judg 3:13; 2 Sam 10:5). Throughout Israel’s history, the curse invoked by Joshua and the fear of the Lord would have deterred anyone from actually rebuilding and refortifying the city – a defiant raising up of the city walls and gates that God had thrown down.
The extreme level of moral and religious decay in the land of Israel during Ahab’s pagan rule is highlighted by the actions of Hiel, an Israelite whose name means “God lives; the life of God” and who is from the city of Bethel, which means “the house of God.” Recall this was the same city in which Jeroboam had placed one of his golden calves. Coincidence?
This rebuilding undoubtedly required approval from Ahab prior to fortifying a major city within Ahab’s kingdom. Ahab considered himself as a builder of cities (22:39), and this likely may have been a part of his broader campaign against the Moabites, who had thrown off the yoke of servitude placed upon them by David.
The rebuilding of Jericho’s city walls in the face of Joshua’s long-standing curse was met with the fulfillment of the curse, more than five hundred years after it was pronounced. Scholars are divided as to how the curse was fulfilled, whether Hiel’s eldest and youngest sons died due to divine intervention, or whether they were offered up by their father in a foundation sacrifice.
Foundation offerings were a well-known Near Eastern practice, as evidenced by the archeological discovery of skeletal remains of children found buried under the thresholds of houses. DeVries writes regarding vs. 34: “The foundation sacrifice, revealed by modern archaeology, is probably what was involved. The children named were probably infants, dead or alive, placed in jars and inserted into the masonry, propitiating the gods and warding off evil.”
Jamieson aptly sums up: “The unresisted act of Hiel affords a painful evidence of how far the people of Israel had lost all knowledge of, or respect for, the word of God.”
With such a backdrop of history and in the face of such unrelenting evil, idolatry and gratuitous defiance and hostility towards Yahweh, for such a time as this, the Lord sends in His appointed prophet – Elijah – whom we’ll meet in the next verse.
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